Exoplanets#
Exoplanet Discovery#
For the past 25+ years, NASA has used ground- and space-based methods to identify exoplanets (planets outside of our solar system). In the past ten years in particular, campaigns like Kepler, K2, and TESS have produced an explosion of results. To date, approximately 4,400 exoplanets have been identified, and over 3,000 potential exoplanet candidates have been discovered.
In this notebook, we will use Holoviews and Panel to make a dashboard visualizing the discovery of confirmed and candidate exoplanets over the years.
We’ll also include a scatterplot in our dashboard that reveals details about the relationship between mass and radius of exoplanets, as well as controls to filter the data based on whether the planets could support life, and if so, whether chemical rockets could be used to escape the planet.
import pandas as pd
import holoviews as hv
import panel as pn
import numpy as np
import colorcet as cc
import hvplot.pandas # noqa
hv.extension('bokeh')
Loading data#
For this notebook, we will be loading our exoplanet data from three different CSV files:
stars, a dataset of 257,000 stars identified by the European Gaia space mission,
exoplanets, a collection of 480 exoplanets obtained from the NASA Exoplanet Archive; and
candidates, a collection of approximately 3,000 candidate exoplanets collated from the Kepler and TESS campaigns.
We could load the data using pure Pandas calls like stars = pd.read_csv("data/stars.csv"), but here let’s cache the results using Panel so that new visitors to the dashboard won’t have to reload or recalculate the data:
%%time
stars = pn.state.as_cached('stars', lambda: pd.read_csv("data/stars.csv"))
exoplanets = pn.state.as_cached('exoplanets', lambda: pd.read_csv("data/exoplanets.csv"))
candidates = pn.state.as_cached('candidates', lambda: pd.read_csv("data/candidates.csv"))
CPU times: user 179 ms, sys: 32.3 ms, total: 211 ms
Wall time: 209 ms
The stars data includes the coordinates and brightness of the star:
stars.head()
| source_id | phot_g_mean_mag | ra | dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 5.781830e+18 | 10.113231 | 236.645693 | -75.399888 |
| 1 | 6.680680e+18 | 12.095904 | 307.362343 | -40.700107 |
| 2 | 2.065110e+18 | 11.209872 | 313.225036 | 40.417739 |
| 3 | 5.408450e+18 | 11.566668 | 151.755425 | -46.530993 |
| 4 | 5.781850e+18 | 12.487245 | 235.555713 | -75.457647 |
The exoplanets data includes the coordinates along with a variety of attributes about the planet:
exoplanets.head()
| pl_name | hostname | disc_year | radius | temperature | mass | ra | dec | habitable | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 11 Com b | 11 Com | 2007 | NaN | NaN | 6165.6000 | 185.178779 | 17.793252 | False |
| 1 | 11 UMi b | 11 UMi | 2009 | NaN | NaN | 4684.8142 | 229.274595 | 71.823943 | False |
| 2 | 14 And b | 14 And | 2008 | NaN | NaN | 1525.5000 | 352.824150 | 39.235837 | False |
| 3 | 14 Her b | 14 Her | 2002 | NaN | NaN | 1481.0878 | 242.602101 | 43.816362 | False |
| 4 | 16 Cyg B b | 16 Cyg B | 1996 | NaN | NaN | 565.7374 | 295.465642 | 50.516824 | False |
Candidate data is sparse and includes only a few attributes besides the coordinates:
candidates.head()
| name | ra | dec | radius | year | temperature | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 2170.01 | 164.313856 | 89.086923 | 2.667700 | 2020 | 950.000000 |
| 1 | 2173.01 | 145.799111 | 87.868530 | 3.207040 | 2020 | 1713.000000 |
| 2 | 1691.01 | 272.404118 | 86.860343 | 3.495124 | 2020 | 707.833472 |
| 3 | 1671.01 | 130.969393 | 86.228398 | 11.750000 | 2020 | 649.000000 |
| 4 | 2287.01 | 222.750790 | 85.895391 | 1.949042 | 2020 | 898.936882 |
Note that because of imprecise detection methods, characteristics such as temperature, mass, and radius are all estimates. For more information on the uncertainty in these measurements, see the NASA Exoplanet Archive.
Because our goal is to generate a map of the exoplanets and stars, we need a standardized coordinate system for all three of our dataframes. Here, we’ll use the equatorial coordinate system provided in the original datasets. Equatorial coordinates are given by two angles: ra (right ascension) and dec (declination). ra and dec represent the position of an object on an imaginary sphere called the celestial sphere, with the Earth at its center and an equator that’s a projection of the Earth’s equator. Right ascension measures the horizontal position of the object on that sphere, and is usually given in either hours or degrees (our datasets use degrees). Declination measures the vertical position of the object. Because these coordinates are defined based on the tilt and shape of the Earth independent of its rotation, the equatorial positions of celestial objects do not change over the course of a day or a year.
In the dataframes, dec ranges from -90º to 90º and ra ranges from 0º to 360º. To make our map more intuitive, we will place the Earth at the origin, so we’ll need to rewrite the ra coordinates in the range -180º to 180º. To do this, we’ll write a simple function recenter:
def recenter(r):
"Convert ra coordinates so that Earth is at origin"
return np.mod(r+180, 360)-180
# Limit to the brightest stars, if desired
#stars = stars[stars["phot_g_mean_mag"]>11]
%%time
stars['ra'] = pn.state.as_cached('stars_ra', lambda: recenter(stars['ra']))
exoplanets['ra'] = pn.state.as_cached('exoplanets_ra', lambda: recenter(exoplanets['ra']))
candidates['ra'] = pn.state.as_cached('candidates_ra', lambda: recenter(candidates['ra']))
CPU times: user 26 µs, sys: 16 ms, total: 16 ms
Wall time: 14.8 ms
If desired, Astropy provides methods of converting to other common celestial coordinate systems that can easily be applied to the dataframes; see examples in an older version of this notebook.
The Goldilocks zone and the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation#
One of the methods used to determine whether an exoplanet could potentially support life is to check whether liquid water could exist there. For water to be present on the planet as liquid, the planet’s temperature must be within a fairly narrow range, and therefore the planet must be within a certain distance of the nearest star. Exoplanets within this range are said to be in the “Goldilocks zone.”
If intelligent life were to exist on one of these planets, would it be capable of space travel? If the hypothetical life forms used similar methods to humans — for example, hydrogen- and oxygen-powered chemical rockets — would they even be able to leave their planet? A heavier rocket requires exponentially more fuel, but more fuel means more mass. The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation makes this question more precise:
where \(\Delta v\) is the impulse per mass unit required for the rocket to travel its course, \(v_e\) is effective exhaust velocity, \(m_0\) is the initial mass of the rocket, and \(m_f\) is the final mass of the rocket (here, equal to \(m_0\) minus the mass of the fuel spent on the flight). To see the rocket equation in action, consider a planet of the same density as Earth with radius \(R\) double Earth’s and thus mass \(M\) eight times Earth’s.
(Click to expand/contract computation details)
For the purposes of this example, we’ll assume that $\(\Delta v = \sqrt{\frac{GM}{R}},\)\( where \)G\approx 6.67\cdot 10^{-11}\( (in reality, some complicating factors exist, but our formula works as an approximation at relatively low altitudes\)^*$). Then
Using the highest recorded exhaust velocity of a chemical rocket, \(5320\frac{\text{m}}{\text{s}},\) and we’ll calculate the approximate percent of the rocket’s mass that would have to be fuel in order to propel the rocket to \(250\) m\(^*\):
so
\(^*\)We won’t go into detail here, but the \(\Delta v\) calulation for \(250\) m is derived from the vis-viva equation.
To make it to \(250\) m above this planet’s surface, about \(98.5\%\) of the rocket’s initial mass would need to be fuel. For comparison, the rocket with the highest initial-to-final mass ratio ever built was the Soyuz-FG rocket, which was \(91\%\) fuel by mass. Moreover, we were very generous with the conditions used to compute the mass ratio to escape our imaginary planet. The exhaust velocity we used was only ever recorded for a highly corrosive, dangerous, expensive propellant that, with the current state of technology, is not feasible for use in space travel.
Filtering by feasibility of space travel#
We can use the rocket equation to get an idea which exoplanets might be the right size to allow for space travel. Let’s assume that the hypothetical life forms on an exoplanet can make a chemical rocket with exhaust velocity at most \(5320\frac{\text{m}}{\text{s}}.\) Let’s also say that they’ve figured out how to make rockets that are up to \(95\%\) fuel by mass (so \(\frac{m_0}{m_f}=20\)). These two (generous) assumptions will allow us to make an educated guess of whether the mass and radius of the exoplanet would ever conceivably allow for space travel:
We can now define a function deltav that approximates \(\Delta v\) for each exoplanet and returns True or False depending on whether that value is small enough. We’ll then add a corresponding column escapable in our dataframe and cache it.
def deltav(p):
"""
Given a planet record or planet dataframe, determine whether delta-v is
sufficiently small for feasible space travel with chemical rockets
"""
G = 6.67*(10**(-11))
return np.logical_and(p.habitable, np.sqrt(G*p.mass/p.radius)<=5320*np.log(20))
exoplanets['escapable'] = pn.state.as_cached('escapable', lambda: deltav(exoplanets))
Filtering and plotting data#
To help a user understand the data, we’ll allow them to filter it and then plot the results.
To orient users, we’ll first create a point representing the Earth at the origin \((0,0)\):
origin = pd.DataFrame(data = {'ra':[0],'dec':[0]})
opts = dict(x="ra", y="dec", xlabel="right ascension (deg)", ylabel="declination (deg)", responsive=True, aspect=5/2)
earth = hv.Text(0, 0, '🌎', fontsize=20)
# earth
We could plot that single point by itself, but let’s go ahead and overlay it on a background of stars as a frame of reference, setting rasterize=True to use Datashader to pre-rasterize the data so that it is practical to display in a web browser. We’ll also add an arrow with the text “You are here” pointing to the Earth for this display.
star_bg = stars.hvplot.points(
rasterize=True, color="phot_g_mean_mag", cmap=cc.fire, colorbar=True, cnorm='eq_hist', **opts).opts(bgcolor="black")
arrow = hv.Arrow(-5, 0, 'You are here', '>').opts(arrow_color='white',text_color="white",text_baseline="top",arrow_line_width=2)
star_bg * earth * arrow